Bottom-up (resource mediated) effects have been shown to strongly influence higher trophic levels, with the potential to drive trophic cascades. Parasitoids, or insects that must complete larval development within or on the body of another arthropod host, are important members of the third...
The composition of ecological communities is determined by a variety of factors that span multiple scales, from interactions between individuals to landscape characteristics. Leaf-–tying caterpillars that build shelters between leaves are ecosystem engineers--—species that influence local...